Table 1 Overview of highly derived, obligate nutritional symbioses between insects and fungi
From: Patterns of functional enzyme activity in fungus farming ambrosia beetles
| Â | Coleoptera | Diptera | Hymenoptera | Isoptera | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ambrosia beetles | Bark beetles1 | Ship-timber beetles | Gall midges | Wood wasps | Fungus-growing ants | Fungus-growing termites | |
Insect family | Curculionidae | Curculionidae | Lymexylidae | Cecidomyiidae | Xiphydriidae, Orussidae, Anaxyelidae, Siricidae | Formicidae | Termitidae |
Mutualistic fungi | Ascomycota (Ambrosiella, Raffaelea, Fusarium) | Ascomycota (Ophiostoma, Ceratocystiopsis, Grosmannia) Basidiomycota (Entomocorticium) | Ascomycota (Endomyces) | Ascomycota (Lasioptera, Ramichloridium) | Basidiomycota (Cerrena, Stereum, Amylostereum); Ascomycota (Daldinia decipiens, Entonaema cinnabarina) | Basidiomycota (Leucocoprinus, Leucoagaricus and the family Pterulaceae) | Basidiomycota (Termitomyces) |
Age of symbiosis(Mya) | 21–60 | ? | ? | ? | ? | 45–65 | 24–34 |
Agriculture | Â | Â | Â | Â | Â | Â | Â |
Mode of nesting | Xylem tunnels & chambers | Phloem tunnels & chambers | Xylem tunnels | Plant galls | Xylem tunnels | Subterranean nests (occ. mounds) | Subterranean nests and mounds |
Substrate for fungi | Surrounding wood | Surrounding phloem (and wood) | Surrounding wood | Surrounding plant tissue | Surrounding wood | Collected plant material (twigs, caterpillar feces, leaf litter, flowers, fruits, fresh leaves) | Collected plant material (dry leaf litter, twigs, wood) |
Mode of agriculture2 | Advanced | Primitive (possibly advanced in Dendroctonus) | Primitive | ? | Primitive | Advanced | Advanced |
Enzymatic profile | Â | Â | Â | Â | Â | Â | Â |
Fungus garden (incl. microbial community) | xylem degrading saprotrophism and bionecrotrophism5 | bionecrotrophism of phloem | ? | ? | xylem degrading saprotrophism | Saprotrophism (saprobic and biotrophic in leaf-cutting ants) | Saprotrophism (plant cell-wall degrading) |
Fungus acquired enzymes3 | Possible5 | ? | ? | ? | Present | Present | Present |
Mode of feeding 4 | Â | Â | Â | Â | Â | Â | Â |
Adults | Mycetophagy | Phloeomycetophagy | No food | Plant sap | No food | Mycetophagy, (plant material) | Mycetophagy, (plant material) |
Larvae | Mycetophagy (Xylomycetophagy6) | Phloeomycetophagy | Xylomycetophagy | Mycetophagy | Xylomycetophagy | Mycetophagy | Mycetophagy |